Почему не тонет судно: «Почему корабли не тонут?» – Яндекс.Кью

Исследовательская работа «Почему корабли не тонут?»

Муниципальное казенное общеобразовательное учреждение

«Прогимназия №13 г. Майского»

Республиканский конкурс исследовательских работ

и проектов школьников «Первые шаги в науку»

Город Майский

Школа МКОУ «Прогимназия №13 г. Майского»

Класс 4

Направление: окружающий мир

ИССЛЕДОВАТЕЛЬСКАЯ РАБОТА

Тема: «Почему корабли не тонут?»

Руководитель исследовательской работы: Карпенко Екатерина Николаевна

учитель начальных классов МКОУ «Прогимназия № 13 г. Майского»

Участник конкурса — Карданов Кантемир

СОДЕРЖАНИЕ

I.ВВЕДЕНИЕ……………………………………………………………………………3

II.ЛИТЕРАТУРНЫЙ ОБЗОР ПО ТЕМЕ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ ……………………….4

2.1. Из истории кораблестроения………….……………………………………………..4

2.2. Подводные лодки………….………………………………………………………….4

2.3. Строение корабля и его свойства…………………………………………………..5

III. ПРАКТИЧЕСКАЯ ЧАСТЬ РАБОТЫ …………………………………………….6

3.1. Эксперимент ………………………………………………………………………………..6

IV. ВЫВОДЫ ………………………………………………………………………………………….9

V.СПИСОК ИСПОЛЬЗУЕМОЙ ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ ИСТОЧНИКОВ

ИНТЕРНЕТ………………………………..………. …………………………………..10

VI. ПРИЛОЖЕНИЯ. … ………………………………….………….……………….11

I.ВВЕДЕНИЕ

Меня давно интересует вопрос, почему некоторые предметы тонут, а некоторые держатся на поверхности воды.

Под водой мы можем поднять с легкостью камень, который с трудом поднимаем в воздухе. Если погрузить пробку под воду и выпустить её из рук, то она всплывёт. Когда мы плаваем в воде, наше тело выталкивает на поверхность какая-то сила. Почему маленький гвоздь, брошенный в воду, сразу идет на дно? И почему тогда, огромные корабли, построенные из металла, вес которых составляет десятки, а иногда и сотни тысяч тонн спокойно бороздят просторы мирового океана? Как можно объяснить эти явления? Мне захотелось узнать, почему это происходит? Я решил провести небольшое исследование.

Актуальность выбранной темы связана с появлением новых моделей кораблей. Их строят из тяжелых материалов, но это им не мешает держаться на плаву. 

Проблема исследования: почему же такие огромные и тяжёлые корабли не тонут? Что позволяет им не только держаться на воде, но и перевозить тяжёлые грузы? 

Цель исследования: выяснить причины, позволяющие кораблям не тонуть

Задачи: узнать об истории кораблестроения, выяснить, от каких факторов зависит плавучесть корабля, провести опыты, объясняющие, почему корабли не тонут.

В ходе проведения исследования я выдвинул следующие гипотезы:

• возможно, корабли не тонут, т.к. сделаны лёгких материалов;

• я предполагаю, что есть какая-то сила, которая удерживает корабли на воде;

• может быть, корабли не тонут потому, что имеют особую форму и строение.

Объект исследования: тела разной формы и размеров, погруженные в жидкость.

Предмет исследования: изучение взаимодействия жидкости и предметов, помещённых в неё. Мной были использованы следующие методы: изучение литературы и обобщение полученной информации; беседы, эксперименты.

II.ЛИТЕРАТУРНЫЙ ОБЗОР ПО ТЕМЕ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ

2.1. Из истории кораблестроения.

Из литературы я узнал, что люди с давних времён хотели научиться плавать. Первыми плавательными средствами были связанные брёвна, плоты и челноки, выдолбленные из брёвен. Постепенно плавательные средства улучшались. Около 5000 лет назад шумеры и египтяне начали сооружать суда, которые ходили на вёслах и под парусом. Примерно в 3000 г. до н.э. появился первый известный корабль – древнеегипетское тростниковое судно Позже люди стали строить корабли из дерева. Это позволило увеличить размеры судна и перевозить гораздо больше грузов и пассажиров.

В 19 веке паровые двигатели заменили парус, а вместо дерева начали использовать сталь. В ХХ веке в кораблестроении начали использовать пластик. Проходило время. Размеры кораблей увеличивались и, следовательно, рос и их вес. Вместо паровой машины, на кораблях стали устанавливать дизельные двигатели и газовые турбины. А современные флоты используют корабли с атомной двигательной установкой. В настоящее время корабли представляют собой огромные лайнеры и авианосцы, которые бороздят просторы мирового океана и могут месяцами не заходить в порт.

2.2. Подводные лодки.

Существует такой вид кораблей, которые могут плавать, как на поверхности морей и океанов, так и в морских глубинах. Это подводные лодки, или как ещё их называют – субмарины.

Раньше подводные лодки были маленькие судёнышки и служба на них была очень опасной из-за несовершенства техники того времени. Для надводного хода использовали бензиновый двигатель, а под водой лодка передвигалась на электромоторах, питающихся от аккумуляторов. Глубина погружения составляла несколько десятков метров.

Современные субмарины, водоизмещением в несколько тысяч тонн, могут погружаться на глубины до 1000 метров. Наряду с дизельными двигателями для надводного хода и электродвигателями для подводного, на современных подводных лодках применяют и атомные силовые установки. Самые большие подводные лодки в мире – это российские тяжёлые подводные ракетные крейсеры стратегического назначения типа «Акула». Длина «Акулы» — 172,8 метра. Такая лодка может находиться в море до 100 суток.

Для всплытия подводной лодки в балластные цистерны пускают сжатый воздух, из расположенных внутри субмарины баллонов. Поступающий под большим давлением воздух, выталкивает воду из балластных цистерн, облегчая подводную лодку. И как только сила Архимеда превысит силу тяжести подводной лодки, субмарина начнет всплытие.

Служба на подводных лодках и в настоящее время является очень тяжелой, но почётной для моряков.

2.3. Строение корабля и его свойства.

У каждого корабля своё предназначение, но у любого судна есть основные части: корпус корабля, нос, корма. Корабль имеет продолговатую форму, чем-то напоминающую глубокую тарелку. Палубы на корабле закрывают его как крышки. Папа рассказал мне, что на корабль наносится специальная линия (ватерлиния –контрольная отметка, до которой можно загружать судно). Если она видна над поверхностью воды, то беспокоиться не стоит. Если линия скрылась под водой — вероятность его затопления возрастает.

Способность же судна удерживаться на плаву зависит от соотношения его массы (веса) и объема. Так давайте теперь узнаем, почему такие огромные корабли не тонут, и проверим наши гипотезы?

III. ПРАКТИЧЕСКАЯ ЧАСТЬ РАБОТЫ

3.1. Эксперимент

Опыт № 1

Зависит ли плавучесть корабля от материала, из которого построено судно?

Для этого нам потребуются предметы из различного материала: дерева, пенопласта, металла и пластилина. Я погружаю их в воду.

Плотность металла и пластилина больше плотности воды, их молекулы расположены близко друг к другу. Поэтому они утонули, а дерево и пенопласт, плотность которых меньше, чем плотность воды, остаются на поверхности и не тонут. С давних времен люди строили корабли и лодки в основном из дерева, используя свойство дерева – плавучесть. (Приложение 1).

Вывод: корабль можно построить из нетонущего материала, плотность которого меньше, чем плотность воды.

Как зависит плавучесть корабля от формы его корпуса?

Для этого нам потребуются два, одинаковых по весу, шарика пластилина.

Из одного куска делаем кубик, а другому придаем форму корпуса корабля. И погружаем их в воду. Как мы знаем – пластилин должен утонуть в воде, так как его плотность больше плотности воды.

Мы видим, что кубик из пластилина утонул, а фигурка в виде корпуса корабля и имеющая борта, как у настоящего судна, держится на плаву. Его поддерживает на воде какая-то сила. (Приложение 2).

Вывод: корпус корабля имеет особую форму, и может держаться на воде под воздействием определённых сил.

Опыт № 3

Какие силы действуют на погруженный в воду корпус корабля?

Для этого нам потребуется: кусочек пенопласта и металлический предмет (ключ).

Так и трюмная часть корабля, при погружении в воду, вытесняет массу воды, равную ее собственной массе. Вес вытесненной воды и определяет вес судна (это называется водоизмещением корабля). Тело большого размера (объёма) вытеснит больше воды, чем маленькое тело, одинакового с ним веса. И чем больше тело вытеснит воды, тем с большей силой вытесненная вода будет пытаться вернуться на место. И пытаясь вернуться на место, вытесненная вода будет выталкивать корабль вверх.

Это явление открыл древнегреческий учёный Архимед (287— 212 лет до н.э.) и сформулировал закон, который гласит: на всякое тело, погружённое в жидкость, действует выталкивающая сила, направленная вверх и равная весу вытесненной им жидкости, известный сейчас как Закон Архимеда. (Приложение 3).

Вывод: на корпус корабля, погруженный в воду, действует выталкивающая сила Архимеда, направленная верх, к поверхности воды.

Для этого нам потребуется: пустая пластиковая чашечка.

Опускаем чашечку в воду на самое дно. Но как только я отпустил ее, она сразу поднялась на поверхность. Из литературы, я узнал, что на самом деле воздух играет очень большую роль в поддержании корабля на поверхности, но есть ещё и другая сила, которая удерживает судно на плаву. (Приложение 4).

Вывод: воздух на самом деле удерживает предметы на поверхности. Получается, что именно воздух поддерживает корабль на плаву.

Для этого нам потребуется: два стакана, два яйца, соль.

Я взял пустой стакан и положил туда яйцо. Налил в стакан воды. Яйцо осталось лежать на дне. Я взял другой стакан и проделал то же самое, но в него я стал добавлять соль. Сначала яйцо оставалось на дне, но чем больше соль растворялась в воде, тем выше поднималось яйцо. (Приложение 5).

Вывод: выталкивающая сила солёной воды больше, чем пресной.

IV. ВЫВОДЫ

В результате проделанной работы я узнал много интересного об истории кораблестроения, а также о том, что помогает кораблям держаться на поверхности воды.

В ходе своего исследования я выяснил, что ошибался, когда думал, что в кораблестроении используются специальные лёгкие материалы. Но мои предположения о том, что стальные корабли не тонут, потому что имеют особую форму, оказались верны.

Из результатов поставленных опытов, я знаю, что корабли не тонут, если:

• корабль построен из нетонущего материала, плотность которого меньше, чем плотность воды.

• Корпус корабля имеет особую форму и может держаться на воде под воздействием определённых сил.

• На корпус корабля, погруженный в воду, действует выталкивающая сила (сила Архимеда), направленная верх, к поверхности воды.

• Корабль имеет особое строение корпуса, и воздух, находящийся внутри отсеков судна, помогает кораблю держаться на поверхности воды.

Как много всего интересного окружает нас! Как много нам еще предстоит узнать!

V. СПИСОК ИСПОЛЬЗУЕМОЙ ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ ИСТОЧНИКОВ

ИНТЕРНЕТ

• А. Дитрих, Г. Юрмин, Р. Кошурникова «Почемучка» М. «Педагогика», 1991.

• «Большая иллюстрированная энциклопедия школьника» М. «МАХАОН», 2003.

• Л. Горев. «Занимательные опыты по физике» М. Просвещение, 1985

• «Энциклопедический словарь юного физика» М.: Педагогика Пресс,1995

• «Юный исследователь» М.: «РОСМЭН»,1995

• Сахарнов С. В. Плывут по морям корабли [Текст] / С. В. Сахарнов, К. Д. Арон // «Едем, плаваем, летаем». – Москва: «Детская литература», 1993. – С. 7-36.

• http://class-fizika.spb.ru/index.php/opit/692-op-plav2.

VI. ПРИЛОЖЕНИЯ

Приложение 1

Опыт №1

Для проведения опыта потребуются предметы из различного материала: дерева, пенопласта, металла и пластилина. Я погружаю их в воду.

Мы видим что, металлический ключ и шарик из пластилина утонули, а деревянная дощечка и кусок пенопласта держатся на воде.

Вывод: корабль можно построить из нетонущего материала, плотность которого меньше, чем плотность воды.

Приложение 2

Опыт №2

Для проведения опыта нам потребуются два, одинаковых по весу, шарика пластилина. Из одного куска делаем кубик, а другому придаем форму корпуса корабля. И погружаем их в воду. Мы видим, что кубик из пластилина утонул, а фигурка в виде корпуса корабля и имеющая борта, как у настоящего судна, держится на плаву.

Вывод: корпус корабля имеет особую форму, и может держаться на воде под воздействием определённых сил.

Приложение 3

Опыт №3

Для проведения опыта нам потребуется: кусочек пенопласта и металлический предмет (ключ). К кусочку пенопласта привязываем ключ и погружаем их в воду. Пенопласт, всплывая, поднялся вверх и потянул за собой груз.

Вывод: на корпус корабля, погруженный в воду, действует выталкивающая сила Архимеда, направленная верх, к поверхности воды.

Приложение 4

Опыт №4

Для проведения опыта нам потребуется: пустая пластиковая чашечка. Опускаем чашечку в воду на самое дно.

Мы видим, что она поднимается на поверхность.

Вывод: воздух на самом деле удерживает предметы на поверхности. Получается, что именно воздух поддерживает корабль на плаву.

Приложение 5

Опыт №5

Для проведения опыта нам потребуется: два стакана, два яйца, соль.

Кладем яйца в разные пустые стаканы, наливаем воду. В один из стаканов добавляем соль.

Мы видим, что в стакане, в котором нет соли яйцо осталось лежать на дне, а в стакане, в котором присутствует соль, яйцо поднялось на поверхность.

Вывод: выталкивающая сила солёной воды больше, чем пресной.

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When it comes to navigation, misunderstanding between ships regarding navigational issues and failure in following international regulations are the two main reasons for accidents.These reasons can lead to collision of ships, resulting into sinking of one or both the vessels. Apart from this, navigational errors might also lead to grounding of ship in shallow waters, damaging the ship’s bottom and allowing water to enter the ship. 90003 90012 90012 90002 Image Credits: wikimedia.org 90003 90002 Natural phenomenon such as rough winds and monstrous waves can also disturb the ship’s stability and cause the vessel to sink. Winds and waves greatly affect those vessels which have a large area such as RORO ships and container vessels.These might make the maneuverability difficult, resulting into ship collision. 90003 90002 If the waves are larger than the length of the ship, the heavy rolling and pitching creates an up thrust in the central part of the ship, which might result in the ship to crack from the centre. 90003 90002 90007 Precautions Against Vessel Sinking or Capsizing 90008 90003 90002 90007 Free surface effect 90008 90003 90002 90003 90002 When the tanks of the ship are half full, the rolling and pitching of the ship, make the liquid inside the tanks to moves towards the motion of the ship and tend to exaggerate the same.This effect is known as free surface effect. 90003 90002 For this reason it is important that tanks are either full or divided by longitudinal bulkheads which reduce the effect of free surface and help in preventing the sinking of the vessel. The free surface can also take place on the deck due to the accumulation of water on the deck and when there is no arrangement for removing this water or the drain holes have been plugged by the ship staff. This can endanger the ships stability to a great extent.90003 90002 90007 Shifting of cargo 90008 90003 90002 Cargo shifting can also result in heavy listing which may increase the rolling of the ship and the vessel may sink if the deck immersion takes place. Thus, cargo should be properly secured in case of container vessels. In bulk carriers, the cargo should be properly arranged with the help of special plates which are inserted in the cargo to prevent shifting. 90003 90002 90007 Nature of Cargo 90008 90003 90002 This point is only to be considered for bulk carriers.There are some cargos which are hydroscopic in nature, which means that the cargo absorbs moisture from the atmosphere. When the cargo moisture increases above the safe limit, the cargo behaves like liquid, which gives free surface effect. It is therefore important to monitor and maintain the moisture content as required. 90003 90002 90007 Synchronous Rolling 90008 90003 90002 Every vessel has a natural rolling period. Therefore, if the vessel encounters a series of swell in such a manner that the wave period matches the rolling period of the ship then in such condition the ship will have no time for making itself straight or right.If this situation is not corrected then the vessel can sink. The speed and direction of vessel may be monitored and altered as necessary so as to avoid synchronous rolling. 90003 90002 90007 Ice formation 90008 90003 90002 Ice formation results in addition of mass and behaves same as that of shifting of cargo. So it is important to avoid ice formation on the deck and all sea water and fresh water lines to be drained off to prevent any damage. 90003 90002 Do you know other ways that make vessel sinks? 90003 90002 Tags: marine accidents marine navigation safety equipment ship sinking 90003.90000 Why Did the Titanic Sink? An Engineer’s Analysis 90001 90002 On the 14th of April in the year 1912 the R.M.S. Titanic was on her maiden voyage from Southampton, England to New York, United States when it collided with a massive iceberg. Of the 2200 passengers and crew that were aboard, only 705 survived. Despite the builders ‘claims that-even under the worst possible conditions at sea-she was unsinkable, it took less than three hours for the Titanic to sink. The ship’s builders even made claims that it should stay afloat for a minimum of 2-3 days if tragedy struck.So why did the Titanic sink? Was it the material failure or bigger design flaws that went unnoticed? Let us analyze why the Titanic sank from an engineer’s perspective. 90003 90002 First, on that note, National Geographic made an interesting CGI on how the Titanic sank: 90003 90002 90007 90008 90003 90002 At the time of her construction, the Titanic was the largest ship ever built. It was 230m long, 25 stories high and weighed 46,000,000 kg. The ship’s turn-of-the-century design and technology included sixteen major watertight compartments in her lower section that could easily be sealed off in the event of a punctured hull, and hence deemed her unsinkable.90003 90002 On the night of April 14th, although the wireless operators had received several ice warnings from others ships in the area, the Titanic continued to rush through the darkness at nearly full steam. Unfortunately, by the time the lookouts spotted the massive iceberg, it was only less than a quarter of a mile off the bow (or front) of the ship, making the crash into the iceberg unavoidable. 90003 90002 Imagine trying to suddenly avoid a head-on collision in a car; that sounds hard, right? The Titanic was about 20,000 times heavier and had the full momentum of all that weight driving it forward.Though the engines were immediately thrown into reverse and the rudder turned hard left, slowing and turning took an incredible distance because of the tremendous weight (or mass) of the ship. Without enough distance to alter her course, the Titanic sideswiped the iceberg, damaging nearly 100 meters of the right side of the hull above and below the waterline [1]. 90003 90002 The massive side impact caused enough damage to allow water to flood into six of the sixteen major watertight compartments.As water rushed into the starboard side of the ship’s bow, the ship began to tilt down in front and slightly to the right. However, the back (or stern) of the ship had three large and heavy propellers. Just like a lever, as shown as shown in Figure 1, if the board is not strong enough when one side becomes extremely heavy, and the other end is pushed down-the board breaks. 90003 90018 Figure 1: Lever action with two loads on either end illustrating how the Titanic sank 90002 This is almost exactly what happened on the Titanic, too.The front of the ship started to go into the water, leading to the lifting of the stern of the ship out of it. When the ship was almost at 45-degrees, the stresses in the ship’s midsection increased beyond material limits of steel (210 MPa). The Titanic almost split wide open in the middle! This is how the Titanic sank. [1] 90003 90002 90022 Discover the benefits of cloud-based CFD simulation with SimScale, in this features overview download. 90023 90003 90025 Exploring the Titanic 90022 Why Did the Titanic Sink? 90023 90028 90002 While we have had a glimpse as to what caused the ship to start sinking, was that the only reason? What are the scientific theories that have emerged on why the Titanic sank? 90003 90002 One of the first major scientific insights into the sinking of the Titanic was obtained after a 1991 expedition, called the Imax, to the Titanic wreck.This expedition and the research that followed opened numerous discussions that have led to the uncovering of clues on why the Titanic sank. Surprisingly, one of the major discoveries of this expedition included chunks of metal that were once was a part of the Titanic’s hull. These Frisbee sized pieces of steel were about one inch thick with three rivet holes, each one 1.25 inches in diameter [1]. 90003 90002 So why did the Titanic sink? As shown in Figure 2, the ship is believed to have sunk due to multiple contributing factors.90003 90035 Figure 2: Why did the Titanic sink? A reconstruction of the break-up of the «Titanic» [2] 90025 Titanic Analysis 90022 Evidence and Analysis of Why the Titanic Sank 90023 90028 90040 Failure Due to Impact on Hull 90041 90002 One of the key pieces in reconstructing the theory of why the Titanic sank included the pieces of steel that were recovered. Let’s see how some pieces of steel helped answer the question «Why did the Titanic sink?» 90003 90002 Most engineers would have done uniaxial tests during their laboratory sessions.Here a specimen, shaped like a dog bone, is pulled to understand how the material changes shape (or deforms) for the applied load. This is continued until the specimen breaks into two pieces. While materials like aluminum undergo ductile fracture, others like cast iron show no yielding and are brittle. For more information on brittle-ductile-yield criterion, etc., please read the article «What is the meaning of von Mises stress and yield condition?». 90003 90002 In spite of the captain of the ship trying his best to slow down, the huge mass and momentum meant that Titanic was still moving at a powerful speed when it impacted with the iceberg.This high-speed impact was the start of the disaster. When the Titanic collided with the iceberg, the hull steel and the wrought iron rivets failed, do to «brittle fracture». 90003 90002 Most often, for many commonly used structural materials, impact at extremely high speeds result in brittle fracture without any yielding (or plastic deformation). This is a type of catastrophic failure in structural materials, the causes of which include low temperature, high impact loading, and high sulfur content.90003 90002 You guessed it right! On the night of the Titanic disaster, all these three factors were present. The water temperature was below freezing, the Titanic was traveling at a high speed on impact with the iceberg, and the hull steel contained high levels of sulfur. It is here where the chunk of iron discovered during the expedition played a major role in providing the hint that brittle fracture of the hull steel contributed to the disaster. The condition of the edges of the recovered piece of steel was noted to be jagged, almost shattered (like broken china) and sharp upon cleaning it.This brittle fracture of hull steel is probably what the survivors of the disaster then described as a loud noise that sounded like breaking china. Today, typical high-quality ship steel is more ductile and deforms rather than breaks [1]. Astonishingly, scientists discovered that the metal pieces showed no evidence of bending or deformation, they simply shattered! This is one of the main answers to the question «Why did the Titanic sink?» 90003 90040 Laboratory Testing of Hull Materials 90041 90002 In order to confirm this hypothesis on why the Titanic sank, scientists subjected a cigarette-sized specimen / coupon from the pieces to Charpy test.This is a highly popular test to measure the brittleness of a material. It is run by holding the specimen against a steel backing and striking it with a 30-kg pendulum with a 0.75-metre-long arm. The pendulum’s point of contact is instrumented, with a readout of forces electronically recorded in millisecond detail. 90003 90002 A piece of modern, high-quality steel was tested along with the coupon from the hull steel. Both coupons were placed in a bath of alcohol at -1 ° C to simulate the conditions on the night of the Titanic disaster.When the coupon of the modern steel was tested, the pendulum swung down and halted with a thud; the test piece had bent into a «V». However, when the coupon of the Titanic steel was tested, the pendulum struck the coupon with a sharp «ping», barely slowed, and continued upon its swing; the sample, broken into two pieces, sailed across the room [1]. 90003 90058 Figure 3: Results of the Charpy test for modern steel which was left unbroken (left) and Titanic steel which split into two pieces (right) [1].Answering the question «Why did the Titanic sink?» The pictures above show the two coupons following the Charpy test confirm the brittleness of the Titanic’s hull steel. When the Titanic struck the iceberg, the hull plates did not deform, as they should have. Instead, they fractured! This leaves us wondering if the designers anticipated this, and contributes to the reasons of why the Titanic sank. 90040 Did Chemistry Have an Effect? 90041 90002 In the search for answers to the question «Why did the Titanic sink», the steel from the Titanic was further analyzed for chemical components and was found to contain high levels of both oxygen and sulfur, which implied that the steel was semi-kilned , low-carbon steel, made using the open-hearth process.If one had a powerful microscope to zoom in at the dimensions of order or micrometers, you would see that steel shows a grain structure, as shown in Figure 4. 90003 90002 High sulfur content disrupts the grain structure of steel, leading to an increase in its brittleness. When sulfur combines with magnesium in the steel, it forms stringers of magnesium sulfide which act as «highways» for crack propagation. Although most of the steel used for shipbuilding in the early 1900s had a relatively high sulfur content, the Titanic’s steel was particularly high, even for those times [3].90003 90065 Figure 4: Grain boundary structure in steel 90002 While the material is normally quite ductile, the addition of oxygen causes the material to transition from ductile to brittle in nature. This proved the plausibility of brittle fracture of the hull steel. It is a known fact that high oxygen content in steel leads to an increased ductile-to-brittle transition temperature, which was determined as 25 ° C to 35 ° C for the Titanic steel. Most modern steels would need to be chilled below -60 ° C before they exhibited similar behavior.90003 90040 Further Design Flaws 90041 90002 Material flaws were not the only factors that led to the sinking of the Titanic and hence are not the complete answer to the question «Why did the Titanic sink?» The design of the ship was not nearly good enough to deem it as an unsinkable ship. The watertight compartments in the ship’s lower section were not exactly watertight, in any sense. The lower section of the Titanic was divided into sixteen major watertight compartments that could easily be sealed off if part of the hull was punctured and leaking water.These watertight compartments, which made the ship designers claim that the ship was unsinkable, were only watertight horizontally. 90003 90072 Figure 5: RMS Titanic: key design flaw explaining why the Titanic sank so rapidly. It is apparent that as the water filled up one of the compartments, it entered into the other compartment from the top. Not exactly watertight! 90002 The tops of these compartments were open, and the walls extended only a few feet above the waterline [3]. In order to contain water within the damaged compartments, it was imperative that the walls of the watertight compartments positioned across the width of the ship be a few feet taller.Although this is not the reason why the Titanic sank, without this design flow it would have slowed down the sinking process, possibly allowing enough time for nearby ships to help. 90003 90002 The collision with the iceberg damaged the hull portion of six of these sixteen compartments, and the compartments were immediately sealed. But as the water filled these compartments, the ship began to pitch forward from the weight of the water in this area of ​​the ship and the compartments began to spill over into adjacent compartments, due to the horizontal watertight nature.The bow compartments were extensively flooded, and subsequently, the entire ship was flooded, causing the Titanic to be rapidly pulled below the waterline. 90003 90002 The watertight compartments, rather than countering the damage done by the collision with the iceberg, contributed towards accelerating the disaster by keeping the flood waters in the bow of the ship. Without the compartments, the Titanic would have remained horizontal as the incoming water would have spread out. Eventually, even in this case, the ship would have sunk, but she would have remained afloat for a few more hours before capsizing [1].Scientists maintain that this amount of time would have been sufficient for nearby ships to reach the Titanic’s location and all of her passengers and crew could have been saved. 90003 90040 What Could Have Been Done Better? 90041 90002 The Titanic disaster serves as a perfect example of how engineering flaws can have catastrophic effects. Analyzing the answers to the question «Why did the Titanic sink» takes us to the conclusion that had the design of the ship and the materials chosen been better, the disaster could have been easily warded off.90003 90002 If the ship had double bottoms, constructed by taking two layers of steel that span the length of the ship and separating them by five feet of space, extending up the sides of the hull, the bottom plate of the hull would have been punctured without damage incurred to the top plate. With a double bottom, the chance that a punctured hull would allow water into the watertight compartments is minimized. 90003 90002 By extending the double bottoms up the sides of the hull, the watertight compartments could remain undamaged.The addition of a layer of steel to the sides of the ship ensures that in the event of an iceberg or a collision with another ship, only the space between the inner and outer sidewalls would flood with water, barely puncturing the hull. Also, if the transverse bulkheads of the watertight compartments were raised, the spilling of water over the tops of the bulkheads into adjacent, undamaged compartments could have been avoided, as the ship pitched forward under the weight of the water in the bow compartments.90003 90002 Here it is, an engineer’s analysis of why the Titanic sank. Although it is important to understand the errors of the past, it is crucial to make sure they are not repeated in the future. A proper design process can prevent such catastrophes. 90003 90002 If you’d like to read more on this topic, here are other articles that also talk about why the Titanic sank: 90003 90002 There are many more out there that answer the question «Why did the Titanic sink?» 90003 90040 Using Modern Tools of FEA and CFD for Ship Design 90041 90095 CFD analysis of water flow around the keel of a sailing yacht with SimScale 90002 Today, with advanced tools at hand, you can use CFD and FEA simulations to virtually test a ship’s design to make sure such catastrophes do not happen in the future.This article (Boat Design: 5 Ready-To-Use Simulation Templates) contains a few templates. Just create a free Community account here and then copy and use the projects for your own ship design analysis. 90003 90002 If you want to explore further the reasons why the Titanic sank, you can use the SimScale cloud-based simulation platform to analyze the stresses on the ship’s hull due to the water, for example. This CAD model of the Titanic is already uploaded to the platform and you can just copy the project and set up a simulation.To discover all the features provided by the SimScale cloud-based simulation platform, download this overview. 90003 90002 To learn how to run simulations with SimScale, you can watch the recording of the first session of the CFD Master Class. Just fill out this short form and it will play automatically. 90003 90002 References 90003 90104 90105 90106 Gannon, Robert, (February 1995). «What Really Sank the Titanic.» Popular Science, 246 (2), pp. 49-55 90107 90108 90105 90106 Woytowich, Richard, (April 2012).»Titanic Sinking Tied to Engineering, Structural Failures». Retrieved from https://www.huffingtonpost.in/entry/titanic-sunk-new-theory_n_1412622 90107 90108 90105 90106 Hill, Steve. The Mystery of the Titanic: A Case of Brittle Fracture? Materials World, 4 (6), pp. 334-335 90107 90108 90117 90118 .90000 Good Tips for Sinking Ships 90001 90002 You’ve maintained your boat inside and out. The bilge pump is pumping, the motor is humming and you’ve steered clear of all rocks. There is not an iceberg in sight, there’s no Celine Dion playing — all is well. Enter Mother Nature — a storm comes along, sending your vessel crashing into a shallow reef and before you know it, your boat is sinking. 90003 90002 If you find a hole below deck and you’re taking on water, the first thing you need to do is try and plug it.Your goal here is to be able to pump out more water than is coming in. Be creative — use cabinet doors, table tops, seat cushions or sails. Start with the largest hole if there’s more than one. The last resort in any sinking scenario is to abandon ship. Your boat is safer and more visible than a life raft. 90003 90002 Try and stay calm and listen to the captain’s directions. If you’re the captain, assign jobs to your passengers. Someone should immediately gather all flotation devices and get the life raft ready.While others block the holes, radio for help and give your exact location coordinates. Have another passenger gather up emergency items for the raft, including: 90003 90002 If everyone remains calm and works together, you have a chance of keeping the boat above water or safely making it into the life raft. The captain’s evacuation notice should only come when it’s certain that the boat is going down. 90003 90002 If you’re on a cruise ship, it’s even more important to stay calm.Panic leads to pushing, shoving and trampling, which can lead to other injuries, like broken bones or concussion. Studies have shown that 70 percent of victims of a maritime accident are bewildered and have impaired reasoning, 15 percent exhibit irrational behaviors and only 15 percent stay calm and alert [source: mcga.gov]. Larger boats take longer to sink, so there should be plenty of time to get everyone into the lifeboats. Modern lifeboats are large, often fully covered and sometimes come equipped with motors.Once full, they’re lowered into the water mechanically by large 90011 davits 90012 that hang over the edge of the ship. The International Maritime Organization’s guidelines require that all cruise ships be able to get passengers lowered into the ocean in lifeboats within 30 minutes of passengers being gathered on deck. 90003 90002 When a large ship sinks it will probably tilt, making it difficult to make your way to the deck. Hold handrails and go slowly to avoid slipping. Also keep an eye out for objects that could be sliding around.The last thing you want is to be near evacuation and get plowed by a grand piano. Try to stay behind large, fixed objects for protection. You’ll know it’s time to evacuate when you hear the signal from the captain — seven short horn blasts followed by a long one. The crew of the ship should be the last ones off the boat and assist each passenger in getting to their preassigned lifeboat. 90003 90002 90003 .90000 How Did the «Unsinkable» Titanic Sink? 90001 90002 If you’ve seen many movies that take place on the ocean, you know how large and powerful the oceans of the world can be. It’s hard to imagine a manmade vessel that could withstand absolutely anything the oceans of the world could throw at it. But that’s exactly what many people thought about a ship called the 90003 Titanic 90004. 90005 90002 When the 90003 Titanic 90004 left Queenstown, Ireland, on April 11, 1912, with over 2,200 passengers and crew members bound for New York, most of those on board probably believed the common myth that had been floating around for months: the 90003 Titanic 90004 was unsinkable.Based upon news articles about the ship and advertisements from its owner, the White Star Line, it’s clear that those who built the ship had designed it to be unsinkable. 90005 90002 When it was built and launched, the 90003 Titanic 90004 was the largest ship afloat. At 882.5 feet long, 92.5 feet wide, 175 feet high, the ship displaced 66,000 tons of water. It was the largest movable object ever made. With newly-designed watertight compartments and remotely-operated, electronic watertight doors, it’s easy to see why engineers believed the ship was practically unsinkable.90005 90002 The 90003 Titanic 90004, in addition to being exceptionally huge, was designed to be the ultimate in luxury travel. Never had a cruise ship had such magnificent features, including a gymnasium, swimming pool, libraries, restaurants, and luxurious cabins. The 90003 Titanic’s 90004 passenger list for its maiden voyage included some of the wealthiest people in the world. 90005 90002 The first few days of the 90003 Titanic’s 90004 voyage went smoothly. On April 14, 1912, however, the 90003 Titanic 90004 hit an iceberg at 11:40 pm.At that time, the ship was approximately 375 miles south of Newfoundland in the northern Atlantic Ocean. 90005 90002 Although the ship had been designed to stay afloat even if four of its 16 watertight compartments were breached, the iceberg’s glancing blow caused the ship’s hull plates to buckle along its starboard (right) side, and water soon began to fill six of the watertight compartments. Less than three hours later, the ship would break apart and sink over two miles to the ocean floor. 90005 90002 Approximately 705 people survived by boarding lifeboats.Unfortunately, outdated maritime regulations had not forced the ship’s designers to include enough lifeboats to ensure the survival of all passengers and crew members. In fact, the Titanic had only enough lifeboats to save a little more than half of its passengers and crew, if properly loaded. The lifeboats were not properly loaded and approximately 1,517 people perished in the disaster, making it one of the worst peacetime maritime disasters in history. 90005 90002 If the «unsinkable» 90003 Titanic 90004 had been able to stay afloat longer than a couple of hours, many more lives could have been saved.When it sent out its distress call, though, the first ship to respond — the 90003 Carpathia 90004 — was more than three hours away. By the time it arrived, the 90003 Titanic 90004 was on the ocean floor. 90005 90002 Another ship — the 90041 Californian 90042 — was actually closest to the 90041 Titanic 90042 when distress signals were issued. However, it was not clear what the actual situation was, and Captain Stanley Lord did not order the 90041 Californian 90042 to assist. 90005 90002 Experts who have studied the disaster, including the ship’s remains that were discovered on the ocean floor in 1985, have concluded that no one single factor is to blame.Instead, they believe it was a series of factors, called an «event cascade,» that caused the 90003 Titanic 90004 to sink so quickly. 90005 90002 For example, experts believe the ship was sailing too fast for the icy conditions. Moreover, they think Captain Edward J. Smith paid too little attention to iceberg warnings that had been received. Some iceberg warnings might not have even made it from the radio room to the ship’s bridge. Finally, the crew members watching for icebergs from the crow’s nest didn ‘ t have binoculars.90005 90002 All of those factors help to explain why the 90003 Titanic 90004 collided with an iceberg on the night of April 14, 1912. Why it then sank so quickly can be explained, in part, by the unfortunate use of some lower-quality construction materials. 90005 90002 Metallurgists who have studied the disaster believe that, despite the 90003 Titanic 90004 ‘s advanced technology and luxurious accommodations, its hull was fastened together with poorly-cast wrought-iron rivets. When the ship hit the iceberg, they believe these rivets popped off, effectively «unzipping» the hull at the seams.90005 90002 The holes created in the ship’s hull allowed six compartments to flood, causing the allegedly «unsinkable» ship to not only sink, but to do so quickly. The 90003 Titanic 90004 disaster shocked the world and led to several new maritime safety regulations, including ensuring enough lifeboats to carry everyone on board. 90005 .